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HIDES & SKINS 

AND THE 

MANUFACTURE OF LEATHER 



A LAYMAN'S VIEW 
OF THE INDUSTRY 



BY 

JAMES PAUL WARBURG 

Assistant Cashier 
The First National Bank of Boston 



The First National Bank 
OF Boston 






Copyright, 192 i 
The First National Bank of Boston 



Z' 




CU621335 



'I QO 1021 



JUL 2: 



\3^ 



^ TABLE OF CONTENTS 

rj^ ^ Foreword 

{^ The Evolution of The Industry 

Part One 

The Raw Material 

Chapter i. Hides. 

Chapter 2. Skins. 

Chapter 3. Flaying and Curing. 

Chapter 4. Imperfections. 

Chapter 5. The Manufacturing Materials. 

Part Two 

The Manufacture of Sole Leather 

Chapter 6. The Preparatory Processes. 

Chapter 7. Vegetable Tanning of Sole Leather. 

Chapter 8. Finishing Sole Leather. 

Chapter 9. Other Heavy Leathers. 

Part Three 

The Manufacture of Upper Shoe and Dressing Leather 

Chapter 10. Calf-skins for Upper Shoe Leather. 

Chapter 11. Side and Patent Leather. 

Chapter 12. Goat-skins and "Kid" Upper Leather. 

Chapter i3. Other Upper Leather. 

Chapter 14. Oil Tannage of "Chamois" Leather. , 

Chapter i5. Tawing Glove Leather. 

Chapter 16. Book and Bag Leather. 

Part Four 

The Economic Distribution of The Industry 

Chapter 17. The World's Supply of Raw Material. 

Chapter 18. Imports of Raw Material into the U. S. 

Chapter 19. Exports of Leather from the U. S. 

Chapter 20. Marketing and Prices. 



The First National Bank of Boston 

is a substantial stock-holder in 

The International Acceptance Bank Inc. 

3 1 Pine Street, New York City 

This bank has recently been organized to finance foreign 
trade. Over one third of its $i5,25o,ooo. Capital and Sur- 
plus is owned by the foremost European Banks and bank- 
ing firms, a unique feature, which enables this^new insti- 
tution to offer unparalled service in foreign fields. Among 
its stock-holders are also many of the leading banks of the 
United States. 

Paul M. Warburg D. G. Wing F. Abbott Goodhue 
Chairman Vice-Chairman President 



ILLUSTRATIONS 

FRONTISPIECE page 
Inspection of Cattle before killing _ _ 6 

PART ONE. The Raw Material. 

Flaying Hides from Cattle - - - 19 

PART TWO. The Manufacture of Sole Leather. 

Sorting Hides before Washing in Drum Tumbler 26 

Soaking and Liming Pits with Crane Conveyor 26 

Unhairing ----- 29 

Fleshing - _ - _ _ 3q 

Trimming on the Beam - _ _ 31 

Working Cylinder of Fleshing Machine {Drawing) 31 

Pit Tan Yard - - - - 32 

''Rounded" Hide, two Methods (Drawings) - 34 

Bleaching - - _ _ _ 37 

Oiling ----- 37 

Setting - Out - - - - 37 

Rolling ----- 38 

Brushing - - _ _ . 33 

PART THREE. The Manufacture of Upper-Shoe and Dressing 

Leather. 

Sorting Skins - - - - 42 

Paddle Vats - - - - 42 

Chrome Tanning Wheel - - _ 44 

Shaving Machine - - - _ 45 

A Row of Fat-Liquoring Drums - - 46 

Slocum Staking Machine - - _ 49 

Baker Staking Machine (Grasshopper type) - 49 

Straining _ - - _ _ 59 

Seasoning and Drying - - - 50 

Mechanical Foot Counter - - - 52 

Sorting and Making Bundles - - 52 

Feed End of Splitting Machine - - 54 

Delivery End showing two Splits - - 54 

Setting out Side Leather - - - 56 

Straining Side Leather - - - 56 

"Toggling" before Japanning - - 57 

Varnishing Room, Showing Ovens - _ 57 

Boarding the Grain - - - 61 

Pressing Sheep Skins - - - 63 

Glazing Machine - - - - 65 

Serial Table Unhairing Machine - - 68 

PART FOUR. The Economic Distribution of the Industry. 

Exports of Leather - - _ 74 

Price Fluctuations (charts) - _ _ 79 




s^ 






FOREWORD 

The Evolution of the Industry 

Probably every man who has ever seen leather knows it to be de- 
rived from the skin of various animals; but probably not one in ten 
even thinks that he understands just what has happened to the raw 
skin to make it leather; and, as a matter of fact, scientists are to this 
day divided in their opinions as to whether the change caused by tan- 
ning is chemical, or physical, or both. The twofold object of all 
tanning processes is to render the skin imputrescible and more or less 
elastic. The origin of how this was first accomplished cannot be traced, 
for the attempt to preserve the skins of animals dates back far beyond 
recorded history into the time of primitive savages. Specimens of 
ancient Egyptian leather, said to have been manufactured at least a 
thousand years before the birth of Christ, are still to be seen in a 
museum in Europe, and it is probable that the inhabitants of the Nile 
delta at that time were fully as versed in the art of tanning as were 
our ancestors in the reign of Queen Elizabeth. 

We may picture to ourselves an early savage, wearing a dried pelt 
of some animal as a cloak. We may think of him at first surprised, 
and then considerably annoyed to find that the softness of the skin 
entirely disappeared as soon as it was thoroughly dry, giving place to 
an exceedingly disagreeable horniness. His first reaction would be to 
soak the skin in water in an attempt to render it once more supple. 
It was probably in this way that the natives of Japan discovered that 
the waters of certain streams had a softening and preservative effect 
upon skins, for they flowed over a bed-rock of alum. Until very re- 
cently Japanese white leather was produced in this primitive manner. 

Failing such a fortunate freak of nature, our savage would find to 
his chagrin that as soon as his pelt had dried, it became once more 
hard, and furthermore began to show signs of decay. We may picture 
him then trying the effect of animal fats, or perhaps of smoke, or in 
some way discovering the preservative effect of twigs and pieces of 
bark. In any one of these ways, provided it were continued long 
enough, he might obtain a rudimentary tannage. To be sure, he would 
be far from producing a leather that could be made into a modern 



^n 



shoe, but nevertheless he would possess a skin practically immune from 
decay, and softened to a certain degree. 

The progress in the development of leather manufacture until 
mediaeval times was comparatively negligible, and historical data are 
lacking by which to trace its course. We know, however, that by the 
end of the sixteenth century the manufacture of curried leather was 
well established in Hungary, and that Spain was at that time producing 
a fair quality of morocco. Gradually the industry spread over Europe, 
America, and other parts of the world; machinery was slowly per- 
fected to take the place of manual operations; new finishes, such as 
waxed calf and alum-tanned kid, were added to the old Spanish crup 
and cordovan leathers; and finally, about thirty years ago, scientific 
chemistry evolved the chroming process, by which it is estimated that 
ninety per cent, of the world's upper shoe leather is made to-day. 

The remarkable feature of the industry, even now, remains the fact 
that it rests primarily on an empirical basis, far more so than any 
other of our primary industries. While it is probably true that medi- 
cinal herbs constituted the first chemical discovery of man, it may well 
be claimed that industrial chemistry, to which our present civilization 
owes so many of its material adjuncts, originated in the preservation 
of animal skins. 

Besides the usage of leather for boot soles and uppers, there are an 
infinite number of purposes to which it has been adapted, some of 
which it will be impossible to treat here in even a cursory manner. 
It is not intended by these omissions in any way to belittle the im- 
portance of the subjects which the author has felt to lie beyond the 
scope of this pamphlet. Furthermore, in order to avoid duplication, 
the arbitrary expedient has been adopted of discussing in Part Two 
only the vegetable tannage of sole leather, and in Part Three only the 
chrome process for making upper boot leather. In this manner each 
method of tanning is taken up in detail in the field where it finds its 
greatest application, but it must not be inferred by the lay reader that 
sole leather is never chromed, or that no upper leather is made by the 
vegetable processes. While this fact is brought out later on, it cannot 
be too strongly emphasized at the outset. 

To attempt a discussion of the entire industry within so brief a space 
is at best a precarious undertaking. For purposes of simplification the 
subject has been divided into four groups: 1. The Raw Material; that 
is, hides and skins, what they are, where they come from, how they are 
obtained, and their imperfections; also the materials by means of which 
they are made into leather. 2. The Manufacture of Sole and other 
Heavy Leather. 3. The Manufacture of Boot Upper, Glove, Book, and 
other Light Leather. 4. The Economic Distribution of the Industry. 



18| 



Each of these groups is in itself a subject for a book far longer than 
this. 

The illustrations contained in this booklet were made available 
through the courtesy of A. C. Lawrence Leather Company, Howes 
Brothers Company, Swift and Company, Turner Tanning Machinery 
Company and the Associated Industries of Massachusetts. To these 
and many other friends of The First National Bank of Boston in the 
leather industries the author is indebted not only for helpful advice 
and criticism, but for exceptional opportunities for first-hand observa- 
tion. Much of the material contained in subsequent pages has been 
derived from other books and articles, especially from Mr. K. J. 
Adcock's admirable study of the industry, and valuable assistance was 
received from various trade publications. Finally, too much credit can- 
not be given to Mr. Perry D. Keating, of the staff of The First National 
Bank of Boston, for his assistance in much of the research work and 
compilation of statistical data. 

Boston, Mass. 
April 19, 1921. 



The First National Bank of Boston 

jointly with the National Bank of Commerce in New 
York owns 5o% of the stock of 

The French American Banking Corporation 

New York City 

This corporation is owned by banks whose combined 
resources are over $i,3oo,ooo,ooo., the largest interest, 5o% 
being held by the Comptoir National d'Escompte de Paris. 

Through this connection the corporation can avail itself 
of over 225 branches in France, England, Spain, Egypt, 
Tunis, Madagascar, Australia, and India. The Comptoir is 
also the Paris and London agent of the French Colonial 
Banks in Algeria, Morocco, Indo-China, East Africa, Mar- 
tinique, Guadaloupe, and French Guiana. 



PART ONE 

THE RAW MATERIAL 



CHAPTER I 



Hides 

The hides and skins of various animals form, as we know, the raw 
material from which leather is manufactured. The term, "Hides," 
is applied to coverings of the larger animals, such as full-grown cattle, 
horses, or buffalo; while technically "Skins" are derived from smaller 
animals, for example, calves, sheep, or goats. The intermediate size 
between a large "skin" and a small "hide" is known to the trade as a 
"kip." This term, however, is not very clearly defined, being used with 
various meanings in different parts of the world. Where the pelt of a 
wild animal is dressed, the furrier always refers to it as a skin, no 
matter what the size of the animal. 

The heavier grades of hides are generally manufactured into sole 
and belt ing leath er; those of extra large surface — "spready" hides — 
are oTlen used f or~upholstery ; and in some cases, as we shall see later, 
hides are split into several layers or thicknesses, and by this means 
used for the production of boot uppers of a variety known to the 
trade as "Side Leather." As a very general rule, one may say that 
hides, because of their greaTe^ thickness, are particularly_^ the raw 
material^oLt he sole and- iieavy leathgr tan ner, while skins go na,turally 
Tnto the process of makingjip^er . shoe, bag^ and glove leather. In- 
asmuchTas these'^wo industries are entirely separate and distinct, it 
will be advantageous to the reader to bear in mind this segregation 
from the start. 

The hides used by sole-leather tanners in this country are of both 
foreign and domestic origin. The chief source of imported hides are 
the meat-freezing plants of South America, which of recent years have 
become a dominant factor not only in the world's supply of beef and 
mutton, but of hides and sheepskins as well. South American packer 
hides are known to the trade as "Frigorificos," and are preferred by 
many tanners over all other varieties. South American green-salted 
hides from smaller killing-plants are known as "Saladeros" and "Mat- 
aderos." Some hides are imported also from other countries, and they 
are used both for the manufacture of sole and upper leather. South 
Africa and Australia produce large quantities of first class hides, but 
imports into the United States from these sources are not very heavy. 



"Hides' 

"Skins" 
"Kips" 



Skins for 

Upper 

Leather 



Foreign 
Hides 



il3l 



Domestic 
Sources 



Classifi- 
cation 



East India hides, often known as kips, because of the small size of the 
Indian cattle, China hides, Russian horse, and Javanese water-buffalo 
hides also find their way to this country in smaller quantities. 

As might be expected, the chief domestic supply is derived from the 
great meat-packing establishments of the Middle West, "Packer" hides 
not only dominate the markets in this country, but exercise a strong 
influence on hide markets throughout the world. Quite a large supply 
also comes from the smaller abattoirs in various cities, and to these 
must be added a considerable number obtained from local butchers 
throughout the country. Both "City" and "Country" hides, which com- 
pare to "Saladeros" and "Mataderos," command a lower price than 
"Packers," because they are not as a rule so well taken-off or cured. 

All hides are bought and sold on a basis of so many cents per pound. 
They are classified by: 1. Geographical origin; 2. Take-off; 3, 
Weight and sex of the animal; and 4. Freedom from defects. Thus, 
to choose a random example: "Pennsylvania, Country, Light Native 
Steer, Free from Grubs." We shall discuss shortly the various defects 
which are found in hides and skins, but before leaving the subject of 
hide classification, it might be well to glance at a list of those terms 
which refer to weight and sex, and to the brand marks. 

PACKER HIDES 

Heavy Native Steer Free of brand 60 lbs. and up 

Spready Native Steer Free of brand 6^/3 ft. across 

Light Native Steer Free of brand 50 to 60 lbs. 

Extreme Light Native Steer Free of brand 25 to 50 lbs. 

Heavy Butt Branded Steer, Branded on butt, not over 18 in. 

above butt 60 lbs. and up 

Light Butt Branded Steer Same 50 to 60 lbs. 

Extreme Light Butt Branded Steer Same 25 to 50 lbs. 

Heavy Colorado Steer, Side and butt branded, spready and thin 60 lbs. and up. 

Light Colorado Steer Same 50 to 60 lbs. 

Extreme Light Colorado Steer Same 25 to 50 lbs. 

Heavy Texas Steer, Side and butt branded, smaller and plumper 

than Colorados 60 lbs. and up 

Steer Same 50 to 60 lbs. 

Same 25 to 50 lbs. 

Free of brand 55 lbs. and up 

Free of brand Under 55 lbs. 

Branded 25 lbs. and up 

Free of brand 25 lbs. and up 

Branded 25 lbs. and up 



Extreme Light Texas 
Light Texas Steer 
Heavy Native Cows 
Light Native Cows 
Branded Cows 
Native Bull 
Branded Bull 



Buffs 

Heavy Cows 
Extremes 
Heavy Steers 
Bulls 
Branded Hides 



COUNTRY HIDES 

Free of Brand 
Free of Brand 
Free of Brand 
Free of Brand 
Free of Brand 
rft-er^of-^rand 



Cow or Bull Hide 45-60 lbs. 

60 lbs. and up 

25-45 lbs. 

55 lbs. and up 

60 lbs. and up 

all weights 



il4| 



CHAPTER II 

Skins 

In the preceding chapter we dealt briefly with the raw material 
which is made into sole leather. When we come to consider the var- 
ious kinds of skins which are used for the manufacture of so-called 
dressing leathers, we are at once confronted with such an array of 
different varieties, that, in order to avoid hopeless confusion, it be- 
comes necessary to confine ourselves to a few of the most commonly 
used. 

Calf, goat, and sheep skins form by far the greatest proportion of the Kinds of 
skins of smaller animals which are used for making leather. It is well -^^'^ 
to remember also that cattle hides, kips, and horse hides are extensively 
used for making boot uppers and bags. The "shell," or hide from 
the buttocks of the horse, is particularly valuable because of its fine 
grain, and is made into cordovan leather, while the remainder of the 
horse-hide is chiefly used for japanning into so-called "Patent" side 
leather. Pig-skin is an excellent material for bag and saddlery leather, 
the reason for its limited use being the difficulty of flaying it from the 
carcass. Other less frequently used skins are those of the dog, kan- 
garoo, alligator, crocodile, seal, frog, chamois, antelope, and various 
kinds of deer. 

Kips and calf skins are obtained, generally speaking, from the same 
sources as hides. The bulk of the calf skins used in this country come Calf Skin 
from the Packers, others from outside city and country butchers, while 
a large quantity are imported from Europe, South America, India, and 
other parts of the world. The Chicago Packers sell their calf skins on 
a basis of cents per pound of weight; in most other markets, however, 
the skins are graded into groups by weight and then sold on a fixed 
price per skin. Different breeds of cattle, the age of the calf and its 
condition when killed, as well as the actual condition of the skin itself, 
are all factors in determining value. The chief use of calf skin leather 
is in making high grade men's boot uppers, and the heavier uppers 
for women's shoes. 

Goat skins are the material from which are made the well-known 
glazed kid uppers for light, high grade men's and women's footwear. 
The leather made from these skins is easily distinguishable by its 



I15| 



beautiful clear grain, which is more uniformly defined than that of 
Coat Skin ^^^^ skin. The chief difficulty lies in obtaining skins of sufficient sub- 
stance to form a strong leather. Besides uppers many other articles 
are made from the skins of these animals; moroccos for book -binding, 
glove, bag and upholstery leather, and sundry articles such as purses, 
pocket-books, and ladies' belts. Practically no goats are bred in this 
country, except in Texas, so that the vast majority of the skins used are 
imported from foreign countries. Asia Minor, Spain, Austria, and the 
Cape are the chief sources of the kind of skins most suitable for glove 
leather, while the best skins for making glace kid are derived from 
India, China, Brazil, Mexico, the Cape, and other Asiatic countries. 
One of the highest grades, known as Patnas, come from the Indian 
province of Behar. The most desirable skins for the manufacture of 
morocco are produced on the European continent, particularly in Nor- 
way, Spain, and Germany. In this country goat skins are usually 
bought at a price per dozen. 

Sheep are raised in a great many parts of the world, in fact almost 
Q, , . everywhere except in countries where the excessive density of the pop- 
ulation has made grazing impossible. Nevertheless good sheep skins 
are not as abundant as might be expected. The reason for this is that 
these animals are raised primarily for wool and mutton, and that, as 
a general rule, the higher the quality of the wool obtained, the less 
substantial is the skin. A large supply of domestic sheep skins is 
obtained from the slaughter-houses of the Middle West, but a great 
number are also imported from Australia, New Zealand, Africa, and 
other countries. South America produces tremendous quantities of 
sheep, but the skins are sent chiefly to the great pulleries at Mazamet, 
France. Sheep skins are used for making the cheaper grades of dress- 
ing leathers, and also, particularly those from the Cape, for gloves. 
A common practice is to split the skins of these animals, using the 
outer, or grain half (the skiver) for glove leather, and the lining for 
"chamois" or parchment. 

Pig skin yields a leather which, for certain purposes, such as sad- 
fig SA;ire dlery, cannot be approached by any substitute. Nevertheless it is so 
costly to remove these skins, because of the large quantity of fat that 
is lost in the process, that most killers prefer to leave the skin on the 
carcass. Scotland and Germany are practically the only countries 
which produce pig skin in large quantity. Imitations, particularly for 
bags and portmanteaus, are numerous, but are detectible by the absence 
of the holes left by the bristles. 

We have already mentioned some of the less frequently used skins of 
Other other mammals as well as those of some of the amphibious reptiles, and 

Animals even fish. Given sufficient incentive, there are practically no skins 



116 I 



from which some sort of leather could not be made, and it is only 
because we have always had an ample supply of cattle, sheep, and 
goats, that these have become the standard raw materials for the 
leather industry. 



117 



CHAPTER III 

Flaying and Curing 

Much The methods by which the hides and skins are removed from the 

Inexpert carcasses of slaughtered animals vary a great deal, according to the 

Flaying ideas prevalent in different countries. Moreover, a vast number of 

butchers still flay in an exceedingly antiquated manner, by which the 
hides are rendered practically useless to the leather manufacturer. 
Not only do inexpert slaughtermen often misshape the hides, instead of 
leaving them square, but frequently they actually cut holes or deep 
scores through careless handling of their knives. In many cases this 
is due to ignorance, in others to ill-warranted haste. Kosher killing 
somewhat reduces the value of a hide, because the entire throat is 
slashed. 

The French process of mechanical flaying, originally invented about 
Modern ten years ago by Gaston Tainturier, is in great favor in Europe, and 

Methods produces excellent results, as does also the English method of using 
a device known as the tail-extractor. The most efficient systems, how- 
ever, are probably those developed by the American Packers, and 
more recently by the freezing plants of South America. 

Without going into the details of how various kinds of animals are 
American slaughtered, the procedure in the American plants is that of hanging 
Packer the animal, immediately after it has been killed, by one or both of its 

System hind legs. It then travels slowly along an overhead conveyor past a 

considerable number of workmen, each one of whom has a specific 
operation to perform. Thus, taking the case of cattle, which are first 
stunned by a severe blow on the head, the first man, known as the 
sticker, performs his task of sticking the throat and allowing the blood 
to drain. The "Header" then starts to remove the hide from the head, 
the "Leg-breakers" loosen it from the shanks, and the "Floorsmen," or 
"Siders," remove the skin from the sides. For this last operation the 
animal is laid on its back. After it is once more hung head-down, it 
passes in succession the "Rumpers," "Fell-cutters," and "Backers," 
whose names imply the parts of the animal from which they detach the 
hide. The process is completed by the "Droppers," who pull the hide 
off^ the neck and shoulders, and drop it on the floor for inspection. 

The foreman goes over each hide with great care, and if he dis- 
covers any cuts or scores, he is at once able to tell from their location 



118] 



on the hide which workman is responsible. Accurate check is kept Check on 
of all mistakes made in the work, so that an inefficient operative does W^orkmen 
not last for any length of time. 

After the ears have been cut, and the switches trimmed from the 
tails, the hides are graded into various selections, such as Branded 
Cows, Heavy Native Steers, etc. 

Argentine Frigorifico hides compare favorably with those taken off 

by the American Packers, and are preferred by most sole leather tan- r- • .r 

1 1 1 rn- 1 inii r ngorijicos 

ners because they are cleaner, more careiully trimmed, and neshed. 

The practice there is to bathe the cattle thoroughly before killing, and 
afterwards to wash the hides. The hair side is scraped under a spray 
of water and the flesh side severely brushed, after which the surplus 
flesh is scraped off. Accordingly there is less waste material on these 
hides than on any other kind, and as a rule, they command the highest 
price per pound. In the same way "Packers" are given a higher value 
than "Cities" or "Countries." 

The flaying process varies, of course, with calves, sheep, goats, or 
other animals, but the general principle remains the same. The smaller 
and more tender the skin, the greater care is necessary to avoid dam- 
aging it. 




Flaying Hides from Cattle 



n9 



Curing 



Drying 

Unsatis- 
factory 



Dry 

Salting 



Green 
Saltiui 



Pickled 

Skins 



"India- 
tanned" 



After the hide or skin has been removed from the animal it is neces- 
sary not only to wash it as clean of dirt, manure, and blood as pos- 
sible, but also in some manner to preserve it against decay. The most 
primitive way is simply to dry the hides in a cool place away from 
the sun, before shipping them away in loose bundles. This practice 
is still followed in China, and to a certain extent, in India, Arabia, 
South America, and Mexico. Even under the most favoral^le circum- 
stances a dried hide will lose considerable substance, because of the 
long soaking required before it can be put in the lime liquor. Very 
frequently, moreover, dried hides and skins are ruined by exposure to 
heat, or by the fact that they were dried too fast. In the latter case a 
certain amount of moisture remains in the center of the hide and 
quickly develops putrefaction, one indication of which is the loosen- 
ing of the hair, known as "hair-slip." 

A better method is that of curing the skins with salt and then drying 
them, or of shipping them wet-salted to the tanner. The latter process 
is that used by the American Packers, and hides or skins treated in this 
manner are usually referred to as "green salted," as opposed to the 
dry salted condition in which most foreign hides are received. Frigori- 
ficos are soaked in brine and then shipped in a green salted condition. 
The use of impure salts, especially those containing gypsum, and also 
the excessive and uneven spreading of salt are likely to cause stains, 
which no amount of later treatment will completely remove. In mod- 
ern packing plants the greatest care is exercised both in putting the 
hides in the salt beds, and in brushing them thoroughly when they are 
taken out. Inasmuch as hides are sold for so many cents per pound, 
it is essential that vendor and purchaser agree on the amount of tare 
caused by salt, manure and moisture. 

One of the best methods of preserving skins is to pickle them in 
casks of brine, or acid and salt solution. This is frequently done with 
sheep and goat skins, but cannot be applied to hides, because of their 
size. Skins received from foreign countries, in this condition are very 
popular with the tanners of fine dressing leathers. 

It has long been the practice in India to give the skins a rude pre- 
liminary tannage before shipping them to other parts of the world. 
Such skins are referred to by the trade as "India-tanned," a term mis- 
leading to the layman, because the tannage is only partial, and in effect 
amounts to nothing more than a method of curing, since the majority 
of tanners begin by eliminating its effects. 



i20] 



CHAPTER IV 



Imperfections 



Take-off or 

Curing 

Defects 



Through being carelessly flayed from the carcass, hides and skins 
may be cut, scored, or improperly rounded. Through imperfect curing 
they may be excessively horny, putrefied within, stained by salt, or per- 
manently discolored by the iron in bloody fragments of flesh which 
were not removed. These are the defects caused by human carelessness 
or ignorance, against which the tanner is on his guard. In addition 
there are a considerable number of natural causes which often decrease 
or destroy the value of an animal's skin. 

All countries have to contend to a greater or less degree with diseases 
affecting live-stock. Perhaps the most virulent of all is the anthrax Anthrax 
bacillus, which not only lays waste herds of cattle, but is easily com- 
municated to other animals and to human beings. Pasteur first made 
his famous discovery of immunity rendered by innoculation with the 
attenuated virus with this germ, but even today, because of the extreme 
danger from this disease, it is customary in all civilized countries to 
destroy and cremate infected cattle. Dry hides from China and Russia 
not infrequently contain anthrax spores, and for this reason they are 
not permitted to enter this country without first being disinfected with 
bichloride of mercury. 

A milder fever, well-known in almost all parts of the world, is the 
hoof-and mouth disease, which is, however, curable and leaves no 
lasting damage. "Tick" fever caused great wastage in our Southern 
States until it was discovered that "dipping" the cattle three or four 
times a year prevented the tick fly from perpetrating its annual outrage. 

Greater than the damage caused by all animal diseases, except in 
abnormal times, is the nefarious work of the little insects known as 
"grubs." Of these there are two chief offenders, the hypoderma bovis, 
and the hypoderma lineatum, both commonly referred to as warble- 
flies. These insects lay their eggs on the hides of cattle, and the 
larvae eat their way through the hide. Whether they eat in or out- 
wards is still a matter of acrimonious debate; some scientists contend 
that the egg is laid on the fet-locks of cattle, from which they are 
licked off", — thus finding their way into the digestive tract, — and that 
they then eat their way out usually along the spine; others maintain 



Other 
Diseases 



Grubs 



i21 



that the eggs are laid along the spine, where the animal cannot lick 

them off, and that the larvae then penetrate the hide from the exterior. 

In any event, no successful cure has yet been developed, and the annual 

wastage is tremendous. In this country it is customary to consider a 

hide "grubby" if it contains more than 5 holes, during the months 

when the larva is doing its damage. A grubby hide is classed as a 

No. 2 hide and sells for a lower price per pound. 

Sheep Sheep, while not affected by the warble-fly, have other similar in- 

Defects sect enemies, such as the blow-fly and ticks. They also suffer from 

scabs, and during the winter months prior to shearing the grain of 

their skin is wrinkled, a defect known as "cockle," the cause of which 

is not definitely recognized. 

o , All animals, but particularly sheep and goats, scratch themselves 

bcratches , . K i i i • i i ■ ^ 

on briars or cactus plant, or — though this ought not to be permitted — 

on barbed wire. India goat skins are particularly likely to show scars 
of this nature, which mar the grain and reduce the value of the skin. 
The origin, grade, take-off, weight, sex, and freedom from imper- 
fections are all things which the careful buyer of hides and skins 
must watch, in order that he may be able to estimate correctly what 
his yield of leather will be. 



I 22 I 



CHAPTER V 



The Manufacturing Materials 

Before proceeding to follow out the different methods of making 
leather from hides and skins, it may be useful to devote a brief space 
to the enumeration of those materials, which, when applied to the skin, 
convert it into leather. To do so, without anticipating some of the 
processes of manufacture, is not an easy task, and yet it would seem 
necessary in order to avoid confusion on the one hand, and lack of 
consecutive continuity on the other. 

Taking only those processes the products of which are most familiar 
to the average reader, there are four general ways in which leather is 
made: 

1. By vegetable tannage; most commonly used for sole, belting, 
and heavy bag leathers. Also for upper leathers. 

2. By "chroming;" used chiefly for calf and kid upper leathers, 
but also for sole, belting, and other leathers. 

3. By tawing; used for glove leather. 

4. By oil tannage; used for making "chamois" or wash leather. 
In addition there are certain other mineral and chemical tannages 
with which we shall not concern ourselves here. But it is important 
to realize that the four cardinal methods mentioned above are fre- 
quently employed in various combinations with each other, as we shall 
see later. 

Vegetable tannage is obtained by soaking the raw skin in a solu- 
tion containing either the twigs, barks, leaves, roots, or fruits of cer- 
tain trees and shrubs, or else extracts made from them. There are a 
vast number of these vegetable materials which contain the colloidal 
substance, known as tannin. A few of the most important are : 

(a). Oak, Hemlock, Willow, Wattle, Chestnut, Spruce, and Que- 
bracho. The barks of these trees, or extracts made from their wood 
or bark, are very extensively used. Quebracho, a South American 
tree, yields a tannin which is rapidly displacing Oak in this country. 
The chief American sole leather tannages are: Oak (Quebracho), 
Hemlock, and Union (mixed Oak and Hemlock). 

(b). Sumach and Gambler are the most important shrubs, both 
containing a tannin much used in tanning light dressing leathers, or in 



Four 
Principal 
Means of 
Making 
Leather 



Vegetable 
Tannage 



Trees 



Shrubs 



[23 



Fruits 



The 

Chrome 

Process 



Tawing 

with 

Alum 



Oil 
Tannage 



finishing chromed calf and goat skins. Gambier, which comes from 
the Malay Archipelago, is also used extensively to strengthen bark 
liquors in sole leather tanning. 

(c) Valonia, made from the acorns of a Near Eastern oak tree, 
and Myrobalans, the unripe fruit of an Indian tree, are the most com- 
monly used fruit extracts. Both contain a large proportion of ellagic 
acid, which deposits on leather what the trade knows as "bloom." Both 
are used chiefly in conjunction with other materials. 

Besides these there are a tremendous number of other vegetable tan- 
ning materials. In a subsequent chapter we shall note some of the 
combinations used to obtain various effects. 

Most of the calf and kid upper leather is now chromed, while side 
leather is usually chromed and then sometimes tanned superficially 
with vegetable materials; the chrome process is by far the most im- 
portant of the mineral tannages. One of its great advantages is the 
speed with which it is completed, as against the great length of time 
required for most vegetable tannins to complete their work. The 
basis of this process, which we shall analyze more fully in due course, 
is Chrome Salt. 

Nearly all minerals have a tanning, or more properly, a tawing 
effect on hides and skins, but besides chrome salts, the only other 
process which finds wide commercial application is that of tawing 
glove leather with alum and salt. Formaldehyde, potassium salts, and 
other minerals have been used in, combination tannages. 

Animal oils, such as cod, whale, or menhaden oil, are oxidized and 
used to tan wash leather, which as we shall see, is made from the flesh- 
splits of sheep skins; this process is also used for making glove leather. 
Fats and brains are the tanning agent used for making a particular 
kind of soft leather, known as "crown" or "Helvetia." 

There are numberless combinations being tried out every day, but 
the above represent the most commonly used materials, and form the 
basis of most tannages in commercial use at the present time. We 
shall not attempt to discuss here the numerous subsidiary materials, 
such as dye-stuffs and chemicals, which play such an important part 
in the industry, for to do so would lead us too far afield from the 
main topic. 



24 



PART TWO 

THE MANUFACTURE OF 
SOLE LEATHER 




Sorting Hides before Washing in Drum Tumbler 




Soaking and Liming Pits with Crane Conveyor 



CHAPTER VI 

The Preparatory Processes 

Since the tanning of hides into heavy leather and the converting 
of skins into upper shoe and dressing leathers are entirely separate 
and distinct, — almost as much so as the manufacture of cotton goods 
and woolens, — we shall follow first the hides of cattle through the 
sole leather tannery, and then, in Part Three, the manufacture of var- 
ious kinds of light leathers from the skins of the smaller animals. 

The majority of the hides used by American sole leather tanners Soaking 
arrive at the tannery green-salted. The first thing to be done, after 
the hides have been opened out and sorted, is to remove all traces of 
salt and as much dirt as possible. In order to accomplish this the 
hides are soaked in clean soft water, until they are considered suffi- 
ciently clean. Where hides are received dry-salted, or simply flint 
dried, plain soaking will not remove the salt or make the hides pliable 
enough for the subsequent processes, unless they are left in water so 
long that a great deal of gelatinous substance is lost. It is therefore 
necessary to hasten the process by mechanical action, and often by 
chemicals as well. The mechanical method of softening usually con- 
sists of kneading the hides in a drum tumbler, which is nothing more 
than a hollow drum fitted with shelves like those of a paddle-wheel. 
As the drum rotates, the hides are given a thorough beating, and this 
process is frequently augmented by introducing acids or alkalies into 
the water in the drum. 

Plain soaking is usually done in square, cement-lined pits, as is 
also the operation which suceeds it, namely that of liming. The 
primary object in placing the hides in lime liquor is to loosen the 
roots of the hair so that it may easily be removed, but the process is 
one of the most important in the tannery, and many experts claim that 
leather is made or ruined in the lime pit. 

Since lime by itself does not very rapidly destroy the hair-bulbs Liming 
it is customary to add some other depilatory agent, such as red arsenic 
or sulphide of sodium. The length of the process varies but hides 
are rarely left in lime liquor for more than four or five days. The 
methods also vary a great deal; some tanners do their liming in a 
single pit, others use what is known as the three-pit system, in which 



i27| 



Different 
Methods 



Other 
Depilatories 



Vnhairing 



Unhairing 
Machine 



Fleshing 



each of three successive solutions is stronger than the last. One 
essential thing is that the pits must be stirred up at frequent intervals, 
and this used to be done by the ardous process of "pulling." A 
workman reaches down into the pit with a long two-handled instru- 
ment like a fire-tongs, only five times as long, and pulls out the hides, 
leaving them on the side of the pit to drain. This process has now 
been supplanted in some modern tanneries by mechanical devices such 
as paddle-vats which keep the liquors in motion; in a few tanneries, 
the hides are hung from poles joined to a connecting rod opposite 
ends of which are alternately raised and lowered. This contrivance, 
known as the "rocker pit," is more frequently applied to the coloring 
pits. 

During their immersion in lime liquor the hides lose most of their 
natural grease, and the hair becomes sufficiently loose so that it will 
easily come off in the unhairing machine. There are other methods of 
depilation, such as sweating, which is frequently done with sheep skins, 
the hair being attacked by the putrefaction which rapidly develops in 
moist heat. A new method of removing hair by a treatment with 
enzymes is very efficient, but as yet too expensive to be commercially 
practicable. 

The operation after liming, namely that of unhairing, was formerly 
the first of a series of manual tasks performed on a convex wooden 
surface called the beam, which still survives and gives the name of 
"beam-house" to the building in which these operations are now carried 
out by machinery. The dehairing instrument formerly used was a 
blunt knife with a concave edge, with which the hide was scraped down- 
ward over the beam, thus removing the loosened hair. 

There are various machines in use for unhairing, the two chief types 
being the serial table feed, and the roller feed. The latter is almost 
invariably used for hides, while the former is employed for light skins. 
The hides are fed over a roller, immediately after coming out of lime, 
between a soft felt or rubber backing and a cylinder armed with dull 
helical knives, which usually converge half to the left and half to the 
right. By this means the hair is scraped off and the hide slightly 
stretched. 

The next thing is to remove the flesh adhering to the inner side, 
and this is done in a very similar manner. The old method was to 
use a knife with a sharp convex blade and a dull concave edge, using 
first one and then the other over the beam; but all this is now 
accomplished by a machine which differs very little from the one used 
to remove the hair. The only real difference is that the helical knives, 
instead of being blunt, are exceedingly sharp. Both the unhairing and 
fleshing machines work very much on the principle of the ordinary 
lawn-mower. 



^28 



Whereas, as we shall see later, there remain several other preliminary 
processes in the making of upper leather, there only remain two in 
the making of hides into sole leather. The first consists in removing 
by hand what few short hairs have escaped the machine, and the second 
is simply the washing out of the lime which still remains in the hides. 
The latter is usually done in a drum, into which water is continually 
fed through a hollow axle, but is sometimes accomplished by means of 
an acid bath. The acid method, however, is rarely used for sole 
leather. 

After they have been cleansed the hides are ready for the tanning 
liquors, and from now on we must think of the hair side as the "grain." 



De-liming 




Unhairing 



^29 




Trimming on the Beam 




Working Cylinder of Fleshing Machine 



"Suspenders" 



CHAPTER VII 

Vegetable Tanning of Sole Leather 

When all the lime has been removed from the hides they have lost 
their hard gristly quality, and are in a more or less soft, plumped-out 
condition, which is ideally receptive to the tanning liquors. These 
are applied in one of two methods, known as the pit and the drum 
tannage. 

In pit tanning, the hides are slowly passed through three series of Pit Tanning 
pits containing gradually strengthened tanning solutions. The first 
series are known as "suspenders," the second as "handlers," and the 
third as "layers" or "layaways." The object of this lengthy process 
is to secure an even tannage; and to this end the strength of the liquor 
is very carefully graduated. If strong extracts were used in the first 
pits the result would be a rapid tanning of the outer surfaces without 
permitting the tannin to penetrate within the hide. Such leather would 
quickly decay, and moreover its grain would be wrinkled and loose. 

The first series of pits may consist of any number from six upwards, 
according to the size of the tannery. The hides are suspended, as we 
might expect, from wooden poles, and are frequently "rocked" by 
mechanical motion. Inasmuch as the leather gets its first coloring in 
this process, these pits are often referred to as "coloring pits." 

Hides are sometimes "rounded" before being placed in the sus- 
penders, but more frequently, unless the bellies and heads are to be 
chromed, this operation is performed between the suspenders and 
"handlers." "Rounding" consists of cutting the hide into several parts. 
The chief section of the hide is the back of the animal from the neck 
to the tail. This is known as a "back." Sometimes this main section 
is cut in two parts, the "shoulder" and the "butt," the line being drawn 
across the back just behind the fore-legs. Frequently, also, the "back" 
is cut down the spine forming two "sides" instead of a "butt" and 
"shoulder." The "head," or "cheeks," are cut off at the neck, and 
each hide yields two strips of inferior leather known as "bellies," the 
remaining section being referred to as a "bend." The reason for sepa- 
rating the hide into these various portions is that different processes 
are frequently used in order to make out of them different kinds of sole 
leather or heel stock. 



"Rounding" 



j33^ 





BUTT 
BEND 



DOUBLE 
SHOULDER 





'Rounded" Hide, two Methods 



The second series of pits, known as the "handlers," contains a 
stronger tanning solution than the first. Wsually the liquor from the 
weakest "handler" is pumped into the last or strongest "suspender" 
pit. Similarly, the strongest "handler" derives its liquor from the 
weakest "layer." There are usually six or eight "handlers," and the 
liquors are frequently strengthened by extracts or gambier. In these 
pits, as in the succeeding "layaways," the hides are laid flat instead 
of being hung from poles. The first handler liquor usually reads 
about 25° on the barkometer (an instrument used to indicate the 
strength of tanning solutions), and this is gradually increased, until the 
final process is reached. 

In the "layers," of which there are usually five, strong extracts are 
used, which toughen the leather, the barkometer often registering as 
high as 100°. In order to give the leather what the trade calls "bloom" 
it is customary at this stage to add valonia, or some other substance 
containing ellagic acid. The length of time consumed in the pits 
varies with the kind of leather to be produced, and also with the ideas 
of different tanners. The general tendency is to hasten the process as 
much as possible by the use of stronger extracts, which often has a 
deleterious effect upon the product. Good vegetable-tanned sole leather 
remains in the pits for several months — sometimes for almost a year. 

There is, however, one method of hastening the process, by the intro- 
duction of mechanical action. This system, known as drum tanning, 
is successfully used by many French and some American sole leather 
tanners. Drums with revolving paddle wheels keep the hides and 
liquors in motion, thereby so accelerating the process of impregnation, 
that, by gradually strengthening the liquors with extracts, hides can 
be tanned in a few days. The leather produced in this way, however, 
is not generally considered as durable as that tanned more slowly in 
the pits, and also is very likely to have a loose grain. 

The oldest practice among sole leather tanners is to allow the hides 
to drain after being removed from each pit, but the desire for speedy 
production has brought about the common usage of mechanical con- 
trivances, such as reels or cranes, by means of which the hides are 
transferred from one pit to another. Another way of shortening the 
process is to treat the hides with acid before putting them into the 
suspenders, the object being to make them more susceptible. Solubil- 
ized oils are also used to add greater water-proof quality and to permit 
of the use of stronger extracts. 

The most commonly used vegetable materials for tanning sole leather 
in this country are: oak, quebracho, hemlock, valonia and gambier. 



"Handlers'' 



'Layers' 



Drum 
Tanning 



Various 

Speeding 

Methods 



\35} 



CHAPTER VIII. 



'Seasoning" 



'Bleaching" 



Drying 

and 

Oiling 



"Setting 
Out" 



Finishing Sole Leather 

Strictly speaking, the conversion of hides into sole leather has been 
completed in the "layaways." However, since sole leather is sold, 
not by superficial measurement, but by weight, and since color and 
finish are important considerations affecting the price it commands, 
there remain a considerable number of operations before the product 
is ready for the market. 

The first of these finishing processes usually consists of what the 
tanner mysteriously calls "seasoning." As in any other industry, this 
term is used to cover a large field. Proper seasoning consists in fixing 
the tannin in the leather so that it will retain its condition, but in most 
cases this term means drumming the leather in strong hot extracts 
mixed with sulphonated animal oils. The result is not only a fixing, 
but a more complete saturation, lending additional weight and sub- 
stance to the product. This process is often abused, — although not 
nearly so much now as formerly, — by the use of hygroscopic chemicals, 
such as barium salts, which swell the leather but are washed out as 
soon as it is exposed to water. 

The use of strong extracts not only saturates the leather, but gives 
it a dark brown color, which for some reason is not popular with the 
trade. Accordingly, the next operation is a bleaching process, which 
besides lightening the color, also serves to remove superfluous season- 
ing. If bleaching is carried too far it easily results in injury to the 
fibres. 

As a rule the leather is now allowed to dry for several days, being 
hung for this purpose over wooden bars and placed in racks in the 
drying loft. After a sufficient time has elapsed it is taken down and 
oiled on the grain side with a swob, cod-oil being the most commonly 
used. After oiling, depending upon how thoroughly it has been dried, 
the leather may either be hung in the loft once more, or passed on at 
once to the setting-out machine. 

When the leather is to be set-out, or pinned, as the old manual 
operation was called, it still contains a great deal of moisture; at this 
stage it is usually in what the tanner calls a "sammed" condition, 
meaning that if the piece is doubled over it will just barely exude 



36 




Bleaching 




Oiling 




Setting Out 




Rolling 




Brushing 



moisture at the point where it is bent. It is obvious that pressure 
exerted upon leather in this condition will result in the squeezing out 
of the scum formed by surplus moisture and grease. This is precisely 
what the setting-out machine accomplishes, by means of two pairs of 
metal rollers. The scud is then scraped off, and after a little while 
the leather is ready for its first rolling. 

In some tanneries the butt-bends are brought through to this point 
before they are cut down the center to form two sides. In others, 
the sides are separated at the time of rounding, between the "sus- 
penders" and "handlers." In any case the next development is the 
same, namely that of rolling. Formerly this was done by pulling a "Rolling" 
heavily weighted roller over the leather, much as a man rolls a tennis- 
court, but machines are now everywhere in use. 

After the first rolling, the leather is again allowed to dry, this time 
until it contains very little moisture. It is then "sized" with a weak „c- ■ „ 
coloring matter, and rolled for the second time. After this some tan- 
ners use a machine called the striking-out machine, which, by exerting 
extreme pressure on a small part of the leather, smooths out the grain, 
particular care being taken to eliminate the wrinkles about the neck. 

The grain is then usually polished, either by hand, or by a machine "Striking- 
buffer, after which it is inspected and ready for the purchaser. The 
finishing processes are not always precisely the same for the various 
parts of the hide, depending on what is to be made of them. Thus, 
while the bends of a given lot are made into high-grade sole-leather, 
the bellies might be chromed and finished as light chrome sole, while 
the heads were finished into heel stock. The chrome process will be 
taken up at greater length in connection with the manufacture of upper 
leather. Chrome sole-leather is extensively used for tennis and water- 
proof shoes. The finishing process for chrome sole diff^ers chiefly in 
two particulars: first, the leather is stretched to regain some of the 
surface lost by treatment with astringents; and second, a fluify nap is 
frequently raised on the flesh side by brushing up the fibres. 



Out" 



S^9\ 



CHAPTER IX 



Belting 



Shaved 
Sumached 
and Stuffed 



Finishing 



Laminated 
and Chrome 
Belting 



Harness 
Leather 



Other Heavy Leathers 

There are several so-called heavy leathers, which are tanned in much 
the same way as sole leather, but finished in quite a different manner. 
Of a large class, known as industrial leathers, we shall consider only 
one, namely that used for the transmission of power. 

The manufacture of belting proceeds along the same lines as that of 
sole-leather as far as the finishing process. After the tanning proper 
is completed, belting is given a treatment, designed to yield tensile 
strength rather than weight. As a rule only the butts are used for 
this purpose, the shoulders not being of sufficient strength. 

When taken out of tan the butts are first of all shaved in order to 
make them of one thickness throughout. (The shaving process is one 
with which we shall become more familiar in a subsequent chapter.) 
They are then washed and drummed in a strong sumach liquor, instead 
of being seasoned and bleached. After this they are struck-out to 
smooth the grain, and are ready for "stuffing." 

In order to make it pliable as well as strong the leather is now im- 
pregnated with cod-oil and tallow. Formerly this was done by means 
of a hand swob, but the manual operation has been replaced in modern 
tanneries by a machine called the stuffing drum. Through the intro- 
duction of steam or hot air into the drum, it has become possible to 
use heavier greases than tallow. 

After this operation, the surplus grease is removed by scudding, 
similar to the setting-out of sole-leather, and the leather is then dried, 
rolled, and dried once more, after which it is cut up into the desired 
widths of belting. 

During recent years a large quantity of belting has been made by 
a different process which is cheaper, and yet is claimed to produce an 
equally strong product. This method consists in pasting together with 
collodion or some similar adhesive, a number of flesh splits of hides. 
Any number of splits may be used, and the belting produced in this 
way is fast gaining favor with manufacturers. Chromed belting has 
the advantage over vegetable-tanned material that it is not so suscept- 
ible to water or steam, but it has the disadvantage of being more likely 
to stretch. 

The tanning and currying of harness and saddlery leathers is a 
separate trade in itself, but does not vary enough from the manufacture 
of sole and belting leathers to justify analysis here. Pig-skin finds its 
chief use in this field. 



140 



PART THREE 

THE MANUFACTURE OF UPPER-SHOE 
AND DRESSING LEATHER 




Sorting Skins 




Paddle Vats 



CHAPTER X 



Calf Skins for Upper Shoe Leather 

In the manufacture of the lighter leathers, the preparatory processes 
are in many ways similar to those employed in making sole leather. 
There are, however, many very important differences arising chiefly 
from two causes; first, the lighter substance of the raw materials, and 
second, the desire for softness and pliability. Upper shoe leather, which 
we shall consider first, is made from calf skins, goat skins, split hides 
(side leather), horse hides, and sheep skins. There are other less com- 
monly used materials such as kangaroo. While some upper leather is 
vegetable tanned, fully 90% is produced by the chrome process. 

In preparing calf skins for tanning, a great deal depends upon the 
grade of the skins and the kind of leather to be produced. Accordingly 
the skins are carefully sorted into uniform lots. 

In the first processes, there is very little difference from the proce- 
dure we have just followed in preparing hides. The skins are first 
of all soaked for two or three days to remove all traces of salt or 
pickle. Then, instead of going at once into lime, they are usually 
fleshed; following this, they are laid — not hung as sole leather some- 
times is — in the lime-pits, until the hair is sufficiently loose to be re- 
moved by the unhairing machine. The usual time is from six to ten 
days. As soon as the skins have been unhaired, they are washed in a 
drum tumbler, and again fleshed, this time more closely. 

Some of the heavier grades of calf skins are "cheeked" before the 
second fleshing. This is a machine operation by which the thickest 
portion of the skin is levelled, and is performed so that all the leather 
may be of as even a thickness as possible. After the second fleshing, 
the skins are worked by hand over the beam to remove any short hairs 
or unevenness. When this is done, it is the custom in many tanneries 
to weigh and number the skins, which look at this stage very much 
like thin sheets of wet rubber. 

Just as in the tanning of hides for heavy leather, it is necessary at 
this point to work out the remaining lime from the skins, but in addi- 
tion, it is essential to render the material soft and supple. For this 
purpose the skins are now subjected to intense bacterial action, by 
placing them in a solution of animal dung. Where calf skins are to 



Sortini 



Soaking 

Liming 

Unhairing 

and 

Fleshing 



'Cheeking 



'Batini 



1431 



be finished into bag-leather, hen or pigeon dung is used, but where 
great pliability is desired, as for boot upper leather, a stronger agent 
such as dog manure is usually employed. The name given to this 
treatment is "bating," and of recent years its disagreeableness has 
been considerably lessened by the use of artificial puers such as 
"Oropon." At best, however, the process is far from pleasant, even 
though one no longer sees the workmen test the condition of the skins 
by biting them, as in former days. 

In order to remove the puer from the skins before putting them 
into the tanning solution, they are either scudded or washed in a drum Scudding 
tumbler. Some tanners use a "drench" of bran. "Scudding" consists 
in pressing and scraping out the scum and completes the preparation 
of calf skins for the chrome liquor. 

Chrome "tanning," which is really not a tannage, but a tawing Chrome 
process, is effected in one of two ways, known as the one-bath and two- ''^cess 
bath methods. Both are usually preceded by an immersion of the 
skins in alum or sulphuric solution — pickle, as the tanner calls it, — 
which renders them more susceptible to the effects of chrome salts. 

In the one-bath method the skins are soaked in a liquor containing One-Bath 
basic chromium sulphate or chloride, obtained by a mixture of chrome Method 
alum and common soda or bichromate of potash, or by reducing 
chromic acid with glucose. The one-bath system usually employs a 
drum tumbler in which the solution is gradually strengthened. 

The two-bath process requires more care, since a slight error in fi^'^J j 
mixing the ingredients would entirely alter the character of the leather. ^ ^ 
In the first bath, the skins are placed in a covered paddle-vat, or in a 
drum-tumbler, and exposed to the action of chromic acid. The latter 
is obtained from bichromate of potash and muriatic acid. This solu- 
tion turns the skins to a light orange color and leaves them in a state 
which is poisonous to the touch. Some tanners "strike-out" the leather 
between the two baths, in order to remove all wrinkles. The object 
of the second bath is to reduce the acid to an inert oxide, and this is 
usually accomplished in a drum-tumbler containing a solution of 
hypo-sulphite of soda and muriatic acid. This process produces a 
sulphurous acid and turns the leather to a dark dirty brown. Then, as 
the chemical action continues, the sulphur works free, leaving the skins 
a pale bluish color, which can be made completely white by adding 
more soda. 

The chrome process finds its most universal application in conjunc- 
tion with the making of calf, side, and kid upper leather. It must be 
remembered, however, that it is used as well in the manufacture of sole 
and belting and also of recent years in making glove and fancy leathers. 



j 45 




Shaving Machine 




A Row of Fat-Liquoring Drums 



Setting-out 



As soon as the chromed skins are taken from the last drum-tumbler, 
they are hung on wooden horses to drain. They are then "set out" by 
a machine similar to that used for sole leather, only lighter. When 
the surplus moisture has thus been removed, it is usual to shave the 
skins on the -flesh side, in order to make them of even thickness 
throughout. 

Before adequate machinery was invented, this operation was done 
by hand and caused a large amount of wastage. The modern shaving Shaving 
machine is a triumph of mechanical precision, and deserves detailed 
study, which unfortunately for want of space, we cannot devote to it 
here. The principle is once more that of the lawn-mower — a rapidly 
revolving cylinder armed with sharp helical knives — the adjustment 
of which is a matter of great delicacy. 

After a satisfactory flesh surface has been obtained, the skins are 
sorted into various lots, to be colored in different shades. This sorting Sorting 
constitutes a very important factor in the results gained by the tanner, 
and the man to whom this task is delegated must be highly trained. 
Calf skins may be finished in a great number of different ways, and it 
is at this point, after shaving, that the manufacturer must finally deter- 
mine which one of the many finishes is to be applied to each lot of 
skins. 

The next process is usually referred to as "fat-liquoring," and com- 
prises three distinct features, — coloring, filling and oiling. All three 
of these processes are sometimes combined into one, but more often 
they are effected in different drums. Dyeing is done in many ways, 
in drums, vats and even by dipping. The dye-stuffs used vary a great 
deal and constitute a study in themselves. Sumach or gambier are fre- 
quently used in this process both as coloring agents and to give a 
supplementary vegetable tannage. Fat-liquoring proper consists of 
filling the leather with soaps, oils, starch, china clay, tallow, egg yolk, 
or a great number of other materials. The object is to strengthen the 
fibres and render the leather soft and pliable, at the same time giving 
it the desired color. The process is usually carried out at high temper- 
ature in the drum tumbler and changes the leather from its bluish tint 
to black or colors. 

The skins are now hung to dry, after which they are "set-out" to 
remove the superfluous matter. An operation known as "shanking" 
smoothes out the wrinkles in the shanks, and the leather is then al- 
lowed to dry until it reaches a "sammed" condition, after which it is 
laid in damp sawdust until it is soft enough to be "staked." 

"Staking" is an operation somewhat similar to "setting-out." Its Staking 
object is to smooth the surfaces, remove foreign matter, and make the 
leather supple, — in fact, this one treatment changes the "crusty" skins 



Coloring 
"Fat- 
Liquoring" 



.147] 



Straining 



Seasoning 



Finishes 



1. Smooth 
grain 

a. Glazing 



'Gun-metal'' 
b. Plating 



into what looks to the layman like finished leather. There are several 
types of staking machines: in some the leather is pulled over a blunt 
edge by a mechanical contrivance, which reminds the uninitiated 
observer of the jaws of a crocodile, which reach out and grasp the 
material and then let it slip out between them; in another type of 
machine the skins are laid on an inclined surface and are curried by 
a blunt knife fixed at the end of a wooden arm, the action of which is 
reminiscent of a grasshopper's hind leg. (See fig.) 

Each skin is now tacked on a wooden board in such a way as to 
stretch it in all directions, so that some of the shrinkage caused by 
the chrome process is regained. Inasmuch as upper leather is sold 
by superficial measurement, and not by weight, as in the case of sole 
leather, this operation known as "straining" is of considerable impor- 
tance. When the skins have been sufficiently dried, they are removed 
from the board and usually given a second "staking," which, however, 
is not necessary with the lighter skins. Following this, the rough 
edges are trimmed off by hand and the grain is usually brushed. 

The next process, known as seasoning, is not like the seasoning of 
sole leather, although it does to a certain extent serve the same pur- 
poses. The leather is fed by a belt conveyor between several 
rollers, which act in a similar manner to those on a printing press, 
impregnating the surface with a mixture of wax, shellac, and paint. 
The objects to be obtained are color, finish, and smoothness. Many 
tanners prefer to apply their seasoning by hand, and the mixture used 
varies a great deal with the ultimate finish to be produced. As soon 
as the last coat is dry, the leather is ready for its final treatment, which 
consists of being given any one of a number of finishes. 

Calf -skin is finished in three general ways: first, the smooth grain 
finish, — glace, gun-metal, etc.; second, boarded grain finish, — box and 
willow; and third, flesh finish, — ooze and suede. There are many 
variations for all three methods, and all are used both for colors and 
blacks. 

Glazing consists of giving the leather a permanent polish by rubbing 
it at high pressure with a glass sleeker. The operation resembles 
staking with a grasshopper type of machine, — the chief difference 
being that the working tool, instead of a knife, is a small fixed cylin- 
der of glass. Some manufacturers glaze more than once, depending 
upon the height of polish desired. 

Where a duller surface is to be obtained, glazing is supplanted by 
"plating," which consists of pressing the leather in a contrivance much 
like that in which an up-to-date tailor presses his customers' trousers. 
The resulting finish is smooth but not very shiny, and is usually called 
"gun-metal." 



(48 




Slocum Staking Machine 




Baker Staking Machine {Grasshopper type) 




Straining 




Seasoning and Drying 



c. "Mat- 
finish" 



A so-called "mat finish" is obtained by dressing the grain with olive 
oil, thereby giving it a certain "draggy" quality desirable for boot 
tops. Such leather has the advantage of superior softness and comfort. 

In some types of shoes, notably in English brogans, the public has 
become accustomed to a leather which shows a distinct grain marking. 
This is achieved by pressure on the grain surface with a cork board 
("boarding"), which brings out the natural depressions in the skin 
left by the roots of the hair. Boarding is usually done by hand, with 
a tool which fits on the workman's fore-arm. When finished black such 
leather is known as "Box" calf, being named after the originator of 
the process. The same finish in colors is usually referred to as "Wil- 
low" calf. 

The flesh side of calf-skin lends itself readily to being raised in a 
short nap. This is accomplished by severe brushing, which produces 
a soft velvety surface. Such finishes, known as suede or ooze, are 
exceedingly popular for certain types of ladies' shoes. 

Where a piece of leather reaches the finishing stage with an im- 
perfect grain, it is often, if not flesh-finished, submitted to an opera- 
tion called "snuffing." The latter consists in smoothing down the 4. Snuffin, 
grain on a wheel armed with carborundum, cloth, or similar abrasive, 
by means of which a very satisfactory surface can be obtained, although 
it will, of course, lack the natural grain markings. Such "snuff"ed" 
leather is of secondary grade and is sold as corrected-grain calf, under 
various mysterious trade names. 



2. "Boarded' 
Grain 



Box" and 
Willow" 



Flesh 
Finish 



51 




Mechanical Foot Counter 




Sorting and Making Bundles 



CHAPTER XI 
Side and Patent Leather 

If the truth were known, a great many of us, who fondly cherish the 
belief that our pedal extremities are clothed in calf -skin uppers, would Imitations 
be sadly disillusioned; for much of the leather known to the public °' ^°^f 
as "calf" comes in reality from an animal which has long forgotten its 
calf-hood. Practically every known finish of calf-skin has been imi- 
tated more or less successfully in "side leather," and in many cases 
it would tax the eye of an expert to detect the difference. It is dis- 
tinctly to the credit of the shoe and leather trades in this country that 
one may fairly state that the public is really only deceived where it 
deceives itself. 

What then is this mysterious "side-leather?" Nothing more than 
the hides of full-grown cattle, split into several thicknesses. The 
procedure of making this kind of leather is so similar to the manufac- 
ture of calf, which we have just discussed, that for our purposes it 
is necessary to concern ourselves only with a few salient differences. 

To begin with, the hides are sorted in the hide-cellar into various 
weights and qualities. They are then trimmed around the heads, Cu« iiuo 
switches, and shanks, and split down the spine into two sections, or ^^°'^^ 
"sides." It does not necessarily follow that the two sides from the 
same hide would go into the same sort, for one side might be branded 
or scored while the other was not. Soaking and liming then follow, 
some tanners giving the sides a fleshing before they go into lime. 
More frequently both fleshing and unhairing take place after the lime 
bath. 

In most tanneries the hides are scudded when they come out of lime 
and then split, which has the advantage of permitting an entirely differ- Splitting 
ent treatment for the grain and flesh splits. In some cases, however, 
instead of "splitting out of lime," the hides are "split out of tan" at 
a later stage of the process. The splitting machine operates in a 
manner fascinating to observe; the sides are fed in, butt first, over a 
series of rollers until they meet an exceedingly sharp and rapidly 
revolving band-knife, which slices through in such a manner that the 
top, or grain split is of even thickness throughout. The exact thickness 



153] 







Feed End of Splitting Machine 




Delivery End showing two Splits 



Patent 
Leather 



can be regulated, and all unevennesses in the hide are compensated Splitting 
for by a multisection brass roller. Some sides are split only once, Machine 
but frequently, with large heavy hides in particular, the lower section 
is made into several flesh splits. 

The regular procedure of bating, drenching, and scudding is now 
resumed and the split sides are chromed, colored and fat-liquored in 
much the same way as calf-skins. Samming, damping in sawdust, 
staking, straining, and re-staking follow in due course until the finish- 
ing operations are reached. 

Side leather may now be finished in any one of the ways in which Finishing 
we have seen calf-skins treated. Its texture is, of course, not as fine, 
nor does it have the grain marking of calf leather, for which reason 
it is more frequently snuffed and given a gun-metal finish. It is how- 
ever, perfectly feasible to produce in side leather a grain which only 
an expert would detect as artificial. This is done by various methods 
of embossing and printing. 

One very important finish applied to side leather is the japanning 
"process, which produces so-called patent-leather. This treatment varies 
considerably from all other finishes, in that the sides are de-greased in 
benzine solution after being fat-liquored. This is necessary in order 
that the succeeding treatment may take proper effect. The sides, which 
have been colored a dark purple, are then stretched on wooden frames 
by means of tacks along the back, and clips and strings along the 
shanks and belly. The leather is left on these frames until the entire 
japanning treatment has been completed. 

The process itself consists of three coats, after the application of 
each one of which the frames are placed on racks in huge ovens and 
baked. Some German manufacturers japan the flesh side, but in this 
country all three coats are applied on the grain. The first consists 
of a priming solution containing amyl acetate and banana oil, the 
second contains more black and a certain amount of varnish, and the 
last is given almost entirely to add lustre. Usually, where possible, 
the frames are then placed in the sun. The result of this treatment 
is no doubt familiar to the reader in the smooth, glossy, black patent- 
leather used for dress shoes and bags. 

It is well to note here that, while the majority of our patent leather 
is made from japanned sides not all of it is derived from the hides of 
cattle. Horse-hides, and particularly Russian colt-skins, are the ma- 
terial par excellence for this purpose, and German patent leather is 
made to a large extent from goat-skins. 



Three 
Coats 
Baked 



i55 




Setting out Side Leather 




Straining Side Leather 




'Toggling" before Japanning 




Varnishing Room, Showing Ovens 



CHAPTER XII 



Goat-skins 

All 

Imported 



Preser- 
vation 



Sorting 



Beam 
House 
Operations 



Goat-skins and "Kid" Upper Leather 

The famous glace kid upper leather, and dull finished kid are two 
of the most popular leathers used for high-grade footwear. Both 
are made from the skins of goats, which are imported from various 
parts of the world. The small Indian goat has a particularly fine- 
grained hard pelt, and these skins, known as Patnas and Behars, are 
generally considered the most desirable. Goat-skins from China, Tur- 
key, Europe and Mexico are usually somewhat larger and softer, and 
are, therefore, treated in a slightly different manner. 

Goat-skins are shipped green-salted, or dry, or pickled in barrels. 
The latter is the most desirable method of preservation from the point 
of view of the tanner, but, because of the expense, is usually restricted 
to kid-skins to be used for gloves. Some India skins are roughly 
tanned with babool by the natives, and are known as India-tanned 
goat-skins; inasmuch as this preliminary tannage has to be off -set to 
a certain extent, these skins are not very popular, except with certain 
manufacturers who use the babool tannage as a basis for their subse- 
quent processes. 

The first step in the tannery is the assorting of bales into grades 
and weights, after which, as the bales are opened, the skins are sorted 
carefully and put into different lots, the aim being to have the skins 
in each lot as uniform as to kind, size, and weight, as possible. The 
shanks and switches are then trimmed, and the skins are weighed and 
numbered. 

The soaking process varies with the manner in which the skins have 
been preserved, and is sometimes augmented by mechanical action. 
Very frequently a drum-tumbler is used to open the pores and make 
the skins susceptible to the lime. Most kid tanners use two successively 
stronger lime solutions, leaving the skins in each for a varying number 
of days, according to the type of skins and the time of year. 

Unhairing, washing, and fleshing then follow in this order, the hair 
being separated into black and white, and carefully gathered up. The 
machines used are similar, but of a lighter type than those used for 
hides and calf-skins. After being fleshed, the skins are gristly and 



158^ 



Fat- 
liquoring 



tough, and in order to alter this condition they are given a strong 
bating with dog-manure or Oropon. They are then scudded, (or 
"slated," to use strict goat terminology), washed, and gone over by 
hand, after which they are ready to leave the beam house. 

Most goat-skins are "tanned" by the two-bath chrome process al- Chroming 
ready described in a previous chapter. Between the chrome bath and 
the "hypo" they are almost invariably struck out to remove all 
wrinkles. After the second bath they are placed on horses to drain, 
and are then ready to be shaved. 

A few of the thickest goat-skins have a thin split taken off the butt; 
the majority, however, are shaved until the skin is of an even thickness. 
They are then sorted for colors or blacks and sent to the fat-liquoring 
room. After the skins have been dyed and drummed in fat-liquor, 
they are put-out. This operation, similar to setting-out, "brings down" 
the grain and produces a smooth surface. The leather is then well 
oiled on the grain and hung up to dry for a certain length of time, 
after which the skins are allowed to "lie in crust" until they are ready 
to be damped in sawdust and staked. 

Before seasoning, the edges are trimmed, and the unshaved parts of 
the flesh sides are buffed. Seasoning is very important in this kind of Finishing 
leather, and there are an infinite number of combinations used to lay a 
good foundation for glazing. If a dull finish is to be produced the 
seasoning is very much lighter and the leather is either plated or 
ironed by hand. 

Kid leather is marked by an unusually fine and characteristic grain, 
which looks particularly well after it has been glazed. It is lighter in 
substance than calfskin, but more closely knit, and for these reasons 
forms an ideal material for ladies' shoes. Moreover, goat-skin can 
be dyed a great number of different shades of color which are not 
ordinarily used for calf or side leather. 



Glace and 
Dull 



I 59 I 



CHAPTER XIII 



Hors 
Hide 



Cordovan 



Kangaroo 

and 

Deer-skin 



Sheep-skin 



Other Upper Leather 

The great majority of boot and shoe uppers are made from calf, 
goat, or side leather. Before proceeding, however, to a brief consider- 
ation of other light leathers, such as those used for gloves, bags, and 
book-binding, it is necessary at least to mention a few of the materials 
less commonly used, but nevertheless very important, in the manu- 
facture of shoes. 

It has been noted that horse hides and colt-skins are employed for 
the manufacture of patent leather. Their use is not, however, entirely 
restricted to the production of this one finish. Horse hides are finished 
in many ways similar to side-leather, and particularly the "shells," or 
quarters of the butt, constitute the only material from which real crup, 
or cordovan leather, can be made. A horse perspires through its skin, 
— which sheep, goats, and cattle do not, — and, therefore, its hide has 
a porous quality which many manufacturers consider advantageous 
from the point of view of ventilation. The shells are thicker and have 
a superior grain to the rest of the hide, for which reason they were 
prized even in mediaeval times. Cordovan leather remains today the 
most durable of all the upper leathers; its two disadvantages are its 
rather heavy stiff quality in contrast to calf-skin, and the fact that 
the threads of the seams of cordovan shoes are almost invariably cut 
in a short time by the hardness of the leather. 

The skins of the Australian kangaroo yield a very fine, soft, light 
leather, similar to the best calf -skin, and are used to a certain extent in 
this country for high-grade shoes. Occasionally, also, one sees boot 
uppers made of various kinds of deer-skin, but much of the white 
leather known as "buck-skin" is made from the pelts of sheep. 

There is probably no one animal from which such a variety of 
products are obtained as from the sheep. Besides mutton and wool, 
the sheep yields a pelt from which are made an extraordinary number 
of different kinds of leather. In the following chapters we shall see 
how some of the other leathers are produced, but for the moment we 
are concerned only with the manufacture of leather which goes into 
the making of shoes. 



1601 



House 



"Skivers" 

and 

"Linings' 



Sheep-skins usually come to the tanner after they have been de- 
wooled at the pullery. This is sometimes done by sweating, but more Beam 
often by a depilatory agent such as lime or sodium sulphate and 
sulphuric acid. Nevertheless, a secondary liming is given at the tan- 
nery in order that the short fibres may be completely removed. The 
latter operation, known as "cobbing," is similar to unhairing and is 
followed by fleshing. 

From this point the treatment of the skins varies, according to the 
kind of leather it is desired to make. The thickest skins are usually 
split into "skivers" (grain splits) and "linings" (flesh splits) ; skivers 
may then be tanned and finished for upper shoe leather, much the 
same as calf or goat skins. The splitting is done on a machine with 
an oscillating knife, which varies considerably from the hide splitter. 
The thinner skins are often finished for upper leather without splitting. 

The grain of sheep-skin is soft and particularly adapted to printing Artificial 
or embossing. Skivers are, therefore, the best possible material for Grains 
artificial graining, and there are a great number of imitation grains 
produced on sheep-skin, which bear a very close resemblance to the 
original. Cheaper grades of suedes are also made by finishing sheep 
leather on the flesh side. The flesh-splits are not extensively used in 
making shoes, except for shoe linings and backings. We shall see in 
the next chapter, however, that they are used for a variety of other 
purposes. 




Boarding the Grain 



CHAPTER XIV 



'Frizini 



"Stocking'' 



Oiling 



Oxidation 



Oil Tannage of "Chamois" Leather 

Many people today do not realize that the term "Chamois" has 
nothing but an historical meaning, at least when applied to the wash 
leather commonly known by that name. The species of Alpine goat 
from whose skin this leather was originally derived is practically 
extinct, and the article we know as "chamois" is made from the "lining" 
of a sheep-skin. 

The very best quality of linings are usually made into parchment, 
but the vast majority are oil-tanned and used either for wash or glove 
leather. We have noted how the skins were split after coming out of 
lime. The next operation, so far as the linings are concerned, consists 
of removing the excess gelatinous matter by a machine similar to the 
flesher. This treatment, known as "frizing" is often used to remove 
the grain where the skin is too thin to be split. For cheaper grades 
of chamois the linings are sometimes re-split, instead of being frized. 

De-liming is then usually accomplished by means of an acid bath and 
a thorough rinsing in water, after which the linings are given a severe 
kneading in order to make them susceptible to the oil treatment. The 
necessary mechanical action is sometimes obtained by means of a 
drum-tumbler, but a particularly violent machine, known as the faller- 
stocks, is installed in most tanneries. The linings, having been thor- 
oughly beaten and softened, are now hung to drain until they reach a 
sammed condition. 

The actual tannage consists in impregnating the raw material with 
animal oil and then allowing it to oxidize. Cod, whale, shark, and 
menhaden oils are the most commonly used in this country. The lining 
are placed flat in a vat, one at a time, and oil is poured over each. 
After remaining thus for a time they are again "stocked" so that the 
oil may penetrate thoroughly. Next they are oiled again as before, and 
re-stocked, the total number of oilings and stockings depending upon 
the individual tanner's ideas. 

The oxidation of the oil, and incidentally the real tanning of the 
leather, is now brought about by spontaneous heat, the linings being 



162 1 



placed in covered boxes and carefully watched. The oxidation is 
complete when no further heat is generated. 

Finishing wash leather consists first of thorough cleansing and Finishing 
drumming in fresh water. The uncombined oil is then pressed out, 
and the leather is hung to dry. The familiar processes of damping 
in sawdust and staking then follow, after which the leather is pared, 
smoothed with pumice on both sides, and stretched out for its final 
drying. 




Pressing Sheep Skins 



CHAPTER XV 



Suede 



Preparation 
jor Grain 
Leather 



Tawing 



Ageing 



Finishing 



Tawing Glove Leather 

Chamois leather, or thin chromed flesh splits are used for making 
suede gloves, but these, while exceedingly popular, are easily soiled 
and very difficult to clean. Most of the glove leather used is made 
by a different process and is finished on the grain side, although recent 
innovations have made the ooze or suede leather far more practicable 
than formerly. 

Lamb and kid skins are the favorite raw material of the glove 
leather manufacturer, but light goat-skins and skivers are also ex- 
tensively used. Europe, India, and Turkey furnish the best skins, 
quite a few of which are now being shipped pickled in barrels. After 
assorting the skins and soaking them to remove salt, most tanners 
apply a paste of lime and red arsenic to the flesh side. By this means 
the lamb's wool and kid hair, both of which are valuable, are loosened 
and easily removed either by machine or by hand. The skins are then 
usually soaked in lime liquor, fleshed, washed, trimmed, and severely 
bated. After they are taken out of the puer they are drenched in bran 
solution and scudded, before they are finally ready for the tawing 
process, which converts them to leather. 

Alum or formaldehyde are the astringents which form the basis of 
almost all tawing liquors, a much used mixture being composed of: 
alum, egg-yolk, flour, salt and water. The process is usually carried 
out in a drum. A pure alum tannage results in stretchy leather which 
does not hold its shape and is not very warm, while formaldehyde will 
produce a soft, white, washable leather which lacks substance. Various 
combinations are therefore used to obtain a material which will satisfy 
in all respects. 

Drying, damping, staking, and sometimes shaving, follow, much as 
in the manufacture of chromed leather. After being staked the leather 
is dried at high temperature and allowed to "age" for several weeks. 
The latter is a very important feature characteristic of this particular 
industry. 

The next processes consist of dyeing, and fat-liquoring or re-tawing. 
Some glove leather, notably that tawed with formaldehyde, requires 
considerable filling in the fat-liquoring process. After staking, the 
grain is brushed, seasoned, glazed, and ironed, while the flesh side is 
pared and fluffed. There are a great many different methods of dyeing, 
which are highly interesting, but cannot be touched upon here, and 
there are almost as many finishes as there are glove leather tanners. 



(64 




Glazing Machine 



'Morocco" 



Upholstery 



Light Bag 
Leather 



CHAPTER XVI 
Book, Bag, and Upholstery Leather 

Side leather splits and skivers are used for making book leather, but 
the best-known and most popular leather binding is that known as 
"Morocco." The latter was first made in Spain before the Middle 
Ages, and continues to be produced now by essentially the same process 
of tanning goat-skins in sumach liquor. The old method of "bottle 
tanning" consisted in sewing the skin into a bag inside out, leaving an 
opening at the neck, and filling it with the liquor, but this has now been 
supplanted by more modern devices such as paddle-vats and drums. 
The characteristic "grain" of Morocco is obtained by crushing and 
embossing it in various ways. India tanned goat-skins can be re- 
tanned in sumach, and when so treated, yield an inferior grade of 
Morocco. 

Most of the leather used for heavier bags and upholstery of furni- 
ture is made from "spready" hides. The latter are also extensively 
used for the manufacture of various grades of automobile upholstery, 
— which of recent years has become an item of considerable importance. 
The finest grades are made from the grain splits and go into the up- 
holstery of high-priced automobiles, while the various flesh splits are 
finished into leather for medium and low-priced cars. 

Some bag leather is produced by the chrome process, but most of it 
is still vegetable-tanned. The lighter bag leathers, such as those used 
for pocket-books and purses, are frequently made from skivers, which 
are particularly adapted for artificial graining. A great number of 
imitations of various rare leathers are made by embossing and print- 
ing on the grain of sheep-skins. Moreover, the bag and book-leather 
field is that which has been invaded the most successfully by manu- 
facturers of various kinds of substitutes and imitation leathers made 
of other substances than the skins of animals. 



1661 



PART FOUR 

THE ECONOMIC DISTRIBUTION 
OF THE INDUSTRY 




Serial Table Unhairing Machine 



■ ' CHAPTER XVII 

The World's Supply of Raw Material 

The available statistics in regard to the animal population of the 
world are so defective, particularly since the War, that it is possible 
to obtain only a very rough idea of the world's total supply and its 
distribution. It has been estimated that at the beginning of the War 
there were approximately 517,000,000 cattle and calves; 520,000,000 
sheep; 155,000,000 goats; and 126,000,000 horses (including mules 
and asses in some countries). These figures are far from accurate, 
and particularly that for goats is probably much too low, owing to the 
fact that the supply in China is unknown. During the last year before 
the War the world consumed roughly 3,400,000,000 pounds of hides 
and skins, of which about one third was consumption of domestic raw 
stock in various countries, while two thirds was exported from raw 
stock producing countries to manufacturing countries. 

Estimates made by the United States Department of Agriculture 
since the outbreak of the War tend toward the conclusion that the 
world's supply of cattle, sheep, and goats is more or less stationary. 
The War has undoubtedly caused great wastage, but experience in the 
past has shown that the animal population of countries ravaged by 
warfare has recuperated remarkably fast. It would appear that the 
production of sheep has been falling off somewhat since 1907, while 
cattle have remained approximately the same, and the supply of goats 
is really an imknown factor. After-the-War estimates place the num- 
bers of cattle in some of the leading producing countries as follows: 



India 


129 million head 


U. S. A. 


66 


Russia 


38 


Brazil 


37 


Argentine 


35 


Germany 


25 


France 


13 


U. K. of G. B. 


12 



for. 



355 leaving about 150 million unaccounted 



World's 
Animal 
Population 



Distribution 



Cattle 



i69] 



It would be impossible to attempt to show the distribution of goats, 
Sheep and but the largest quantities are known to be in India, China, Russia, 
Goats Turkey, and Mexico. As to sheep, a rough estimate would place the 

distribution about as follows: 



Europe 


150 millions 


Australasia 


98 


Asia 


97 


South America 


72 


Africa 


53 


North America 


52 



522 

U S Cattle "^^^ cattle and sheep population of the United States since 1910 
and Sheep shows an increase of five million head of cattle and a decrease of seven 
and a half million sheep. 

Cattle Sheep 

1910 61,7 millions 52,4 millions 

1911-15 avge. 58,0 51,4 

1916 62,0 48,6 

1917 64,5 47,6 

1918 67,5 48,6 

1919 68,4 48,8 

1920 68,3 47,1 

1921 66,1 45,0 

The domestic production of hides and skins yields enough to supply 
our leather industry with about 55% of its caittle hides, 48% of its 
calf-skins, 30% of its sheep-skins, and practically none of its goat-skins. 
It is therefore quite evident that our tanners must obtain a large pro- 
portion of their raw material from such foreign countries as have a 
surplus for export. 



1701 



CHAPTER XVIII 

Imports of Raw Material into the U, S. 

Before taking up the imports of hides and skins from a statistical 
point of view, it may be of interest to note a few particulars as to the 
methods whereby American tanners obtain their materials from foreign 
sources. 

By far the largest bulk of cattle hides imported into this country 
are derived from South American countries, as may be noted from 
the figures at the end of this chapter. The majority of these hides Frigorificos 
are "frigorificos" which are imported in a wet salted condition, chiefly 
from Argentina, Uruguay, and recently from Brazil. Several large 
tanners of heavy leather have their own purchasing agents in South 
America, who buy direct from the freezing plants, quite a number of 
which are controlled by American interests. Some of these represen- 
tatives act as agents for several tanners, and also there are American 
brokerage houses which buy for account of various tanners. The 
largest Argentine hide brokers, on the other hand, maintain offices in 
New York and Boston and sell direct to the American manufacturers. 

Other South American hides, such as "saladeros" and "mataderos," 
as well as dried hides, are collected throughout the country by large 
native concerns, from whom the American buyer makes his purchases, 
although "saladeros" and "mataderos" are also bought direct by Amer- 
ican brokers. 

American buyers do not as a rule travel through the Far East. 
Asiatic hides, mostly dry, are collected by various native and European 
traders and sold by them to consumers in this country, or to American 
hide merchants. Indian and Javanese water-buffalo hides are becoming 
quite a large item for use in making cheap chrome sole. 

Europe has always been our chief foreign source of supply for calf- 
skins, the best grades coming from France and Scandinavia and the 
largest quantity from Russia. The latter source has been practically 
unavailable since the War, but imports from the rest of Europe are 
slowly getting back to normal. India supplies large quantities of 
cheaper grades of calf-skins and kips, which are purchased by Ameri- 
can tanners through European or native merchants. 



Other 

South Amer. 
Hides 



Oriental 
Hides 



Calf-skins 



5 7U 



Sheep-skins Before the War the Australasian sheep-skin business was handled 
through London, and American buyers used to contract for large 
supplies in that market. Most of this trade is now moving direct 
from Australia to this country, and there are quite a number of Amer- 
ican buyers purchasing for tanners both in New Zealand and Australia. 
A considerable proportion of the South American sheep-skin business 
is controlled by American owned packing-plants, but there are also a 
very large number of native, French, British, and German houses in 
that market. 

Goat-skins ^ comparatively great number of American goat tanners are repre- 

sented by purchasing agents in India and China, one agent frequently 
acting for several principals. The large importers of skins usually 
have their exclusive buyers. 

The following figures, abstracted from the Department of Com- 
merce trade reports will perhaps give a more complete view of the 
hide and skin imports. 

(in even thousands) 

1918 1919 1920 1913 





lbs. 


$ 


lbs. 


$ 


lbs. 


$ 


lbs. 


$ 


Buffalo Hides 


5,818 


1,547 


15,620 


3,463 


9,484 


2,721 


16,234 


2,790 


Calf-skins 


7,583 


2,954 


64,555 


33,653 


35,132 


19,250 


94,559 


26,295 


Cattle Hides 


221,051 


52,030 


407,282 


125,590 


275,067 


85,475 


268,042 


46,299 


Goat-skins 


62,364 


30,490 


133,657 


95,557 


80,205 


88,693 


96,250 


24,790 


Horse, colt, etc. 


4,988 


720 


28,053 


7,246 


16,846 


4,255 


15,642 


3,176 


Sheep-skins 


52,464 


17,402 


85,032 


36,521 


82,751 


38,230 


71,785 


12,395 


Kangaroo 


679 


733 


1384 


1,363 


1,389 


1,481 


1,097 


719 


Other 


6,933 


2,168 


9,256 


3,116 


9,110 


3,828 


4802 


923 



TOTAL 361,891 $108,044 744,836 $306,510 509,983 $243,934 568,411 $117,387 

It is interesting to note from these figures how the first year after 
the War the imports in pounds more than doubled, and in dollars 
almost trebled, falling off both in pounds and dollars in 1920. A 
comparison with 1913 shows the difference still existing from pre-war 
times. The following tables will give the reader an idea of where the 
bulk of the imports come from. 
Calf -skins Out of about 4,285,000 calf -skins weighing 35,132,286 pounds, and 

costing $19,250,661.00 which were imported in 1920: 

France supphed exactly 8,201,685 pounds 

The rest of Europe, roughly 7,500,000 pounds 

British India 4,980,902 pounds 

Canada, Dutch East Indies, and the Argentine, (each 

roughly 2,700,000) 8,100,000 pounds 

And the rest of the world about 7,000,000 pounds 



^12 1 



Out of about 7,000,000 cattle hides weighing 275,066,507 pounds Hides 

and imported during 1920 at a total cost of $85,475,324.00: 
Argentine supplied 113,117,368 pounds 

Canada 26,567,282 pounds 

Uruguay ■ 25,905,130 pounds 

Brazil 19,488,355 pounds 

Columbia 9,977,059 pounds 

Other countries about 80,000,000 pounds 

(Of the "other countries" India, Mexico, France, Cuba, Venezuela, and China 
follow in that order.) 

About 35,200,000 sheep-skins, weighing 82,750,537 pounds, and Sheep-skins 
costing $38,299,658.00 were imported in 1920. Of these 

23,900,000 pounds came from Australia and New Zealand 
13,680,000 pounds came from Argentina 
11,950,000 pounds came from Canada 
5,000,000 pounds came from British India 
4,700,000 pounds came from British South Africa 
The remaining skins came from various South American and European countries, 
with a few from Asia. 

Out of 47,000,000 goat-skins, weighing 80,204,607 pounds and cost- Goat-skins 
ing $88,692,434.00, British India and China supplied by far the 
heaviest proportion 

British India 28,310,320 pounds 

China 19,061,548 pounds 

About 10% of the total Hides and Skins imported into the country 
in 1920 were brought in through the Port of Boston, and of these 
60% were financed by acceptances of The First National Bank of 
Boston. In other words this one bank financed 6% of the entire 
country's imports of hides and skins. 

The Branch of The First National Bank of Boston in Buenos Aires 
finances a very large proportion of the hides and skins exported from 
Argentina. 



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CHAPTER XIX 

Exports of Leather from the U. S. 

Whereas as we have seen the United States is dependent upon the rest 
of the world for about two fifths of its hides and skins, this situation 
is reversed when it comes to the finished product. Before the War 
this country controlled about 25% of the world's leather trade, but 
during the War this figure is estimated to have jumped for a time to 
about 70%. At the present time it is believed to have fallen off so 
that we may be said to do about one third of the world's business in 
leather. During the past year, however, largely due to unsettled 
conditions in Europe as evidenced by exchange rates, our exports of 
leather have fallen off in much larger proportion than our imports of 
hides and skins. 

In order to become aware of the full significance of these figures it 
is necessary to study the quantity figures as well as the dollar amounts. 
Sole leather formerly constituted by far the most important export 
item, but has yielded both to patent and upper leather. The reason 
that the JJnited States used to export so much sole leather to Europe 
was that the hemlock tree is found only in this country and Canada, Sole 
and that hemlock tanned sole leather will hold hob-nails better than 
any other kind. Since the War England has been able to supply 
herself with sole leather because of the expansion undertaken during 
the period of hostilities. Furthermore, with exchange against us, and 
general conditions of such a nature that Europe is buying of us only 
things of the utmost necessity, it is easily comprehensible that the 
demand for hemlock sole from this country has fallen off. 

Although European production of sole leather was stimulated by 
the War, France and Germany, the greatest pre-war producers of high- 
grade upper leather, were unable to keep up their normal production. 
Accordingly the opportunity arose for American tanners not only to 
sell their upper leathers in Europe, but to capture great foreign fields Upper 
such as South America as well. With Germany eliminated, American ^^«^"er 
patent leather dominates the world's market, and glazed kid also is 
almost entirely an American product. How long this condition will 
last depends not so much upon the recuperation of Europe as upon 



Leather 



i75| 



the energy and intelligence with which the American tanners cater to 

their newly-won foreign trade. 

One of the most interesting results of the War, so far as our leather 

industry is concerned, was the surprising growth of the glove leather 
Gloie branch in this country. Before the War almost all our glove leather 

Leather ^as imported, mostly from Germany, imports in 1913 amounting to 

$2,384,667. In spite of much higher prices per foot, the 1919 imports 

were only $789,098 and last year we actually exported $2,198,759. 



i761 



CHAPTER XX 



Marketing and Prices 

Having now obtained a superficial view of the raw material, the 
various processes of manufacture, and lastly of the relative position of 
the United States in this industry, it remains only to show briefly in 
what manner the raw and finished products are bought and sold, and 
how the prices of both fluctuate. 

Hides, as we have seen, come primarily from the North and South 
American meat-packing establishments. Many of these packers are 
affiliated with sole leather tanneries to which they sell their hides 
direct, and a great many large independent users of hides send their 
buyers to Chicago and even to Buenos Aires. Hides other than 
"Packers" or "Frigorificos" are more frequently collected by hide 
merchants who in turn sell to the tanners. 

Domestic calf and sheep-skins are frequently sold direct by the killer 
to the tanner, but imported calf, goat and sheep-skins are often brought 
into the country by merchants and brokers. The largest tanners, how- 
ever, send out their own buyers to foreign countries. 

Sole leather is sold, as we have previously noted, on a basis of 
cents per pound, while upper leather prices are per square foot. Sole 
leather, moreover, is sold according to tannage (oak, hemlock, union, 
etc.), and according to what section of the hide it consists of (backs, 
bends, shoulders, bellies, heads). A great deal depends upon how the 
leather is trimmed, it being a custom, for instance, to trim bends for 
shoe-manufacturers wide, while those for the repair trade are cropped 
close. Sole leather is usually sold by the tanner's own selling organ- 
ization to the shoe-manufacturers and sole-cutters, although some finds 
its way into consumption through the hands of sole leather dealers. 

There is a distinct contrast between the sole and upper leather trades 
from the point of view of organization. The comparatively heavy in- 
vestment and slow turn-over of the sole leather manufacturer have 
tended to concentrate this business in the hands of a few large concerns, 
while the opposite conditions have caused a greater distribution in the 
manufacture of light leathers. Moreover, upper leather is sold at a 
certain price per foot for each grade and finish, no difference being 



Marketing 
Hides 



Skins 



Sole 
Leather 



Sin 



made for different sections of the skin. Since there are a considerable 
number of small tanners it is natural that much more of their product 
should pass through the hands of dealers and commission houses before 
reaching the manufacturer. 

The fluctuation of prices presents a most interesting field for study, 
particularly during the last five years, but it is not possible, within 
the confines of this booklet, to do more than indicate what the general 
Prices trend has been. The accompanying graphs show the course of hide 

and sole leather prices, and calf-skin and calf leather from 1913 to 
the end of 1920. Comment upon them is unnecessary except to point 
out that the first quarter of 1921 has witnessed an even further decline 
which would bring all four curves substantially down to or below 
their levels at the beginning of 1913. Prognostications are always 
dangerous, but it is safe to say that a moderate recovery cannot be far 
distant. Whether the level of stabilization will be substantially above 
that of 1913-1914 is a matter of conjecture, depending, as do all 
things pertaining to the economic future, upon the adjustment in 
Europe. 



5 78 1 





1913 


1914 


1915 


1916 


1917 


1918 


1919 


1920 


$1.10 


















1.00 
.90 




PRK 


:es oi 

and i 


i' PAC» 
jole Le 


ER HIDES 
ather 


1 




.80 
.70 








/ 
/ 
/ 


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$1.40 


1913 


1914 


1915 


1916 


1917 


1918 


1919 


1920 


1.30 
1.20 






PRICI 

Skin 


:s OF 

and Lej 


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ther 






S 


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1.00 














1 




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.80 














1 . 

I 1 \ 

I I \ 




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.60 








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1 
1 
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/ 


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y 














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Price Fluctuation 



SIX SALIENT POINTS ABOUT 
THE FIRST NATIONAL BANK OF BOSTON 

AND THE 

SHOE AND LEATHER INDUSTRIES 

The Five Largest Domestic Producers of Raw Hides 
and Skins are customers of The First National Bank 
of Boston. 

6% of all the Hides and Skins Imported into the 
country in 1920 were financed by Acceptances of 
the First National Bank of Boston, without taking ac- 
count of imports indirectly financed by this bank 
through loans to importers and tanners. 

Out of about 750 Leather Manufacturers in the country 
24% are in New England 

10% are Customers of The First National Bank 
of Boston. 

Out of about 1300 Shoe Manufacturers in the country 
45% are in Massachusetts 

10% are Customers of The First National Bank 
of Boston. 

85 % of all the leather- working and shoe-manufacturing 
machinery used in the country is made by customers 
of The First National Bunk of Boston. 

Besides this there are hundreds of merchants, dealers, 
jobbers, brokers, wholesalers, and retailers of shoes 
and leather or manufacturing supplies, who maintain 
their accounts at this institution. 



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